Systems Analysis Essays

Systems Analysis Essays Systems Analysis Essay Systems Analysis Essay Systems analysis can be defined as a disciplined process, which begins with the establishment of user requirements for a given application and concludes with the implementation of fully operational system The main stages of systems analysis are often referred to as the system life cycle. The following sections give a brief overview of their functions within the systems analysis process. Feasibility study The aim of this stage is to establish whether or not a proposal for the computerisation of a particular application is worthwhile or feasible. In simple terms, the feasibility study has to answer questions such as: Will computerisation achieve the users objectives?; What type of system will be most suitable?; Will it be financially worthwhile? System investigation and design Assuming that the feasibility study produces a recommendation to proceed with computerisation of an application, then before any system specification is produced, an analysis has to be made of the processes and procedures involved in the application under consideration. For example, an analysis of Sales Order Processing should identify how orders are received, the order forms used and the procedures necessary to fulfil orders. Analysis is not simply the recording of an application as it currently operates through a variety of information gathering methods such as interviewing and observation, the requirements of a new system should be identified. Although the needs of the organisation are of obvious importance, employees are more likely to be concerned with matters of job satisfaction and working conditions. Successful implementation of a computerised system requires a great deal of work, involvement and willingness to co-operate by everyone concerned. If staff feel that their views have been considered such co-operation is more likely. Although users views are Important an outside observer can often identify problems with current practice which have never been questioned. A systems analyst from outside the firm needs therefore, to possess qualities of tact and diplomacy if his or her views are to be considered. The process of design should produce a complete picture of * the input, * processing, * storage and * output requirements of the new system. The picture will include * narrative descriptions, * flowcharts illustrating clerical procedures, * data flows and * the role of the computer in broad outline. The design of a computerised system should include as many improvements suggested in the investigation stage as is practicable and it will almost certainly be necessary to question tiers further when, for example, problems arise in the implementation of particular system requirements. Compromises will have to be made between what is desirable and what is practicable. Management and users may have specified requirements during the investigation stage, which prove either too expensive or extremely difficult to satisfy. System implementation System implementation or going live involves a range of preparatory. The main activities are as follow: * Development and/or testing of software. If an off the shelf system is chosen, then no development time is necessary, but testing is still vital. * File conversion. This is probably the most time-consuming activity in that all data relating to the application, which is currently held in manual files, has to be encoded onto the chosen magnetic storage medium. accuracy is vital and both software and clerical checking procedures should be employed. * Staff training and education. This may take a variety of forms but may be part of the proposals put forward by the chosen supplier. It is an extremely important activity if the systems effectiveness is to be maximised and if staff are to feel happy and confident in its operation. * Introduction of new clerical procedures. If the whole system is to function correctly, the computer processing aspect has to be supported by the clerical procedures designed to work with it. Part of staff training, therefore, has to be dedicated to purely clerical tasks such as the preparation of input data or source documents. * Choice of a changeover or going live plan. A number of alternatives are available and each has costs and benefits associated with it. Parallel running, requires that the old and new systems be operated alongside one another until the new system is fully tested. This minimises the risks consequent upon system failure, it is an expensive option in that it involves a great deal of staff time. Direct changeover is less expensive if the new system works but failure could mean catastrophe for the business. The plan used will depend on a number of factors, for example, the importance of the system to the success of the business. System maintenance After its initial introduction a system should be flexible to the changing needs of the business. An allowance for the businesss expansion should be made in the original system specification and the supplier should be able to satisfy those expansion needs as and when necessary. Equally, advances in hardware technology and the sophistication of software mean that a system soon becomes outdated. Even if a business chooses not to take advantage of improved software, hardware is likely to become less reliable and will need replacement after about five years of business use. Agreements on software and hardware maintenance should be established with the supplier and formalised in the contract signed by purchaser and supplier. The Feasibility Study The purpose of a feasibility study is to determine whether or not the purchase of a computer system can be justified. The study has to answer two fundamental questions: 1. Can the envisaged applications be carried out by a computer system more efficiently than with existing facilities?; 2. Will a computer system be economically viable?. Since the early 1 970s, prices of all types of computer system have fallen dramatically and their power has increased to such a degree that, for example, microcomputers challenge the minicomputer in their range of applications. This may be part of the reason why many organisations find it difficult to justify undertaking a detailed feasibility study and argue that no matter how limited their needs there is a computer system to satisfy them at a cost-effective price; it is only necessary to decide on its best application(s). Although this is an understandable view, it should be remembered that any item of equipment should be justified in terms of its costs and benefits to the business and that a computer system should be no exception. Although there are few businesses, which cannot benefit from computerisation at all, the process of carrying out a feasibility study disciplines the purchaser to think carefully about how it is to be used. In modifying the purpose of a feasibility study, the previous questions can be replaced by the following: 1. Which applications can be computerised to give most benefit to the organisation?; 2. What type of computer will be required?; 3. What are the likely acquisition and running costs?; 4. What are the likely implications, especially those concerning personnel and organisational procedures?. Pressures for computerisation There are many and various pressures which can trigger the thought of using a computer, either for the first time or, where a computer is already installed, for other applications still operated manually. Some examples are as follow: i. A business is expanding and to cope with the increased workload it appears that the only the alternative to computerisation is increased staffing. ii. A business is growing at such a rate that more information is needed to manage it properly. To obtain the information manually is too time-consuming and by the time it has been gathered is probably out-of-date. iii. Staff are being asked to work regular and increasing amounts of overtime and backlogs of work are building up. iv. Customers are complaining about the speed and quality of the service provided. v. Where stock is involved, it is difficult to keep track of stock levels and while some customer orders cannot be filled because of stock shortages, other stock is gathering dust on the shelves. vi. A great deal of advertising literature is constantly reminding business management that they are out-of-date and at a disadvantage with their competitors. vii. Other businesses providing a similar service use a computer. Examples (i), (ii) and (iii) suggest that the business is operating successfully and needs to take on extra staff or streamline its systems. Examples (iv) and (v) may be symptomatic of generally poor business management and in such cases, computerisation alone may not solve the problems. Examples (vi) and (vii) may tempt the management to computerise simply to keep up with the Joness. Although a computerisation programme resulting directly from one or more such pressures may be completely successful and worthwhile, the pressure itself should not be the reason for computerisation. Instead, management should establish the organisational objectives they wish to achieve through computerisation. Establishing objectives for computerisation It is important for management to establish what they are trying to achieve in terms of the overall objectives of the business and in the light of this, the objectives of the systems, which contribute to their achievement. For example, two major business objectives may be to improve the delivery of customers orders and to minimise the stock levels, which tie up valuable cash resources. The achievement of these objectives may involve contributions from several different information processing systems and the list may include the following. * Stock Control records stock movements and controls stock levels. * Purchasing responsible for the ordering of new supplies from suppliers. * Sales Order Processing receives customers orders and initiates the process of order fulfilment. * Purchase Ledger the accounting record of amounts owed and paid to suppliers of stock. * Invoicing the production of invoices requesting payment from customers for goods supplied. * Sales Ledger the accounting record of amounts owing by and received from customers for goods supplied. These and other applications within a business are interconnected by the information, which flows between them. Such connections can be illustrated with the use of data flow diagrams (DFD), which are described in Chapter 25. Establishing priorities for computerisation The applications which are going to bring greatest benefit to the business should be computerised first. Establishing individual system objectives The objectives of the relevant application must first be clearly understood. The following is a typical list for stock control serves to illustrate the definition of such objectives. * To maintain levels of stock which will be sufficient to meet customer orders promptly. * To provide a mechanism which removes the need for excessive safety margins of stock to cover customer orders. This is usually effected by setting minimum stock levels, which the computer can use to report variations below these levels. * To provide automatic re-ordering of stock items which fall below minimum levels. * To provide management with up-to-date information on stock levels and values of stocks held. Contents of the Feasibility Report The Feasibility Report should contain the following sections: Terms of reference These should set out the original purpose of the study, as agreed by management and detail the business objectives to be achieved, for example: (i) the improvement of customer service, such that orders are delivered within 24 hours of order receipt; (ii) the provision of more up-to-date management information on current stock levels and projected customer demand; (iii) a tighter control of the businesss cash resources, primarily through better stock management. Applications considered for computerisation The applications which may assist the achievement of the business objectives set out in the Terms of Reference are listed, for example: stock control; purchasing; sales order processing; invoicing; accounts. System investigations For each application under consideration there should be: * a description of the existing system; * an assessment of its good and bad points. For example, the sales order processing system may be slow to process customer orders and this results in poor delivery times, which in turn causes customers to take away their business; * an estimate of the costs of the existing system. For example, apart from the cost of staffing, an estimate has to be made of the cost of lost business, which could be avoided with an improved system. Envisaged system requirements This section should detail, in general terms, those aspects of each application which need to be improved and a broad outline of how each system may operate following computerisation. Costs of development and implementation These will include both capital costs and revenue or running costs. Capital costs are likely to be incurred for the following: (i) computer hardware; (ii) systems software and software packages (either off-the-shelf or tailor-made); (iii) installation charges for hardware and software; (iv) staff training. Revenue costs include those for the maintenance and insurance of the system. In addition, unless there are existing computer specialists in the organisation, additional suitable staff may need to be recruited Timescale for implementation This will depend on the scale of the operation, the type of application and whether or not packaged software is to be used. Expected benefits These are more difficult to quantify than the costs but may include, for example: * estimated savings in capital expenditure on typewriters and photocopiers; * more efficient stock management allows customer service to be maintained whilst keeping stock levels lower. This releases valuable cash resources and reduces possible interest charges on borrowed capital; * expansion in business turnover, without the need for extra staff and reduced overtime requirements. Other considerations The staff have to support any development for it to be properly successful and this usually means consultation at an early stage in the feasibility study and the provision of a proper staff-training programme. Customers must also be considered. For example, when a customer receives a computer produced invoice it should be at least as easy to understand as the type it replaced. Assuming that the feasibility study concludes that the proposed computerisation is worthwhile, according to the criteria set out in the report, then more detailed investigation and design can follow. System Investigation and Design Introduction If the feasibility report gives the go-ahead to the computerisation project, then a more detailed investigation of each candidate system begins. The facts gathered about each system will be analysed in terms of their bearing on the design and implementation of a computerised version. The objectives of the analysis are to gain a thorough knowledge of the operational characteristics of the current system and to settle, in a fair amount of detail, the way in which a computerised system will operate. It is extremely important that the new system does not simply computerise existing procedures. The design should, as far as possible, ignore existing departmental structures, which may inhibit the introduction of different and improved procedures. The aim of the investigation and design process is to produce a specification of users requirements in documented form. This is referred to as the Statement of User Requirements and will be used to tender for supply of hardware and software. Fact-finding methods There are several methods, which can be used to gather facts about a system: (i) interviewing; (ii) questionnaires; (iii) examination of records and procedure manuals; (iv) examination of documents; viii. observation. Each method has advantages and disadvantages and the method or methods chosen will depend on the specific circumstances surrounding the investigation, for example, the size of the business, the number of staff employed and their location and distribution. Interviewing This method has much to recommend it, in that the facts can be gathered directly from the person or persons who have experience of the system under investigation. On the other hand, a business with a number of geographically distributed branches makes the process of extensive interviewing expensive and time-consuming. Further, interviewing skills need to be acquired if the process is to be effective. The interviewer needs to know how to gain the confidence of the interviewee and ensure that the information, which is given, will be of value in the design of the new system. Questions need to be phrased unambiguously in order that the interviewee supplies the information actually required and a checklist of points will help to ensure that all relevant questions are asked. Of course, the interview may need to stray from the points in the checklist, if it becomes apparent that the interviewee is able to provide relevant information not previously considered. For example, clerical procedur es may be designed quite satisfactorily but may be made less effective because of personality conflicts between staff. Such tensions may only be revealed through personal interview. The interviewer also needs to detect any unsatisfactory responses to questions and possibly use alternative methods to glean the required information. Unsatisfactory responses include: * Refusal to answer. Such refusal may indicate, for example, that set procedures are not being followed and that the member of staff does not wish to be incriminated. * Answer with irrelevant information. It may be that the question is ambiguous and has to be re-phrased in order to elicit the required information. * Answer with insufficient information. If a system is to be designed which covers all foreseeable user requirements and operational circumstances, it is important that the analyst has all relevant information. * Inaccurate answer. The interviewer may or may not be aware that an inaccurate answer has been given but it is important that other sources of information are used to cross-check answers Questionnaires Questionnaires are useful when only a small amount of information is required from a large number of people, but to provide accurate responses, questions need to be unambiguous and precise. The questionnaire has a number of advantages over the interview: * each respondent is asked exactly the same questions, so responses can be analysed according to the pre-defined categories of information; * the lack of personal contact allows the respondent to feel completely at ease when providing information, particularly if responses are to be anonymous; * questionnaires are particularly suited to the gathering of factual information, for example, the number of customer orders received in one week; * it is cheap, particularly if users are scattered over a wide geographical area. A number of disadvantages attach to the use of questionnaires: * questions have to be simple and their meaning completely unambiguous to the respondents; * if the responses indicate that the wrong questions were asked, or that they were phrased badly, it may be difficult to clarify the information, particularly if the respondents were anonymous; * without direct observation it is difficult to obtain a realistic view of a systems operation. The questionnaire often provides only statistical information on, for example, volumes of sales transactions or customer enquiries. Examination of records and procedure manuals If existing procedures are already well documented, then the procedure manuals can provide a ready-made source of information on the way procedures should be carried out. it is important to realise that procedures detailed in manuals may not accord entirely with what actually happens. The examination of current records and the tracing of particular transactions can be a useful method of discovering what procedures are carried out. Special purpose records, which may involve the ticking of a box when an activity has been completed, can be used to analyse procedures, which are causing delays or are not functioning efficiently. The use of special purpose records imposes extra burdens on staff who have to record procedures as they happen and the technique should only be used when strictly necessary. Examination of documents It is important that the analyst examines all documents used in a system, to ensure that each: * fulfils some purpose, that is, it records or transmits information which is actually used at some stage. Systems are subject to some inertia, for example, there may have been a one-off requirement to record and analyse the geographical distribution of customers over a single month and yet the summary document is still completed because no-one told the staff it was no longer necessary; * is clear and satisfies its purpose, for example, a form may not indicate clearly the type of data to be entered under each heading. In any case, it may well require re-designing for any new system which is introduced. The documents, which should include, for example, source documents, report summaries, customer invoices and delivery notes, help to build a picture of the information flows which take place from input to output. Observation It is most important to observe a procedure in action, so that irregularities and exceptional procedures are noticed. Observation should always be carried out with tact and staff under observation should be made fully aware of its purpose, to avoid suspicions of snooping. The following list details some of the features of office procedures and conditions, which may usefully be observed during the investigation: * office layout this may determine whether the positioning of desks, filing cabinets and other office equipment is convenient for staff and conducive to efficient working; * work load this should indicate whether the volume of documents awaiting processing is fairly constant or if there are peak periods of activity; * delays these could show that there are some procedures which are constantly behind schedule; * methods of working a trained observer can, through experience, recognise a slow, reasonable or quick pace of working and decide whether or not the method of * working is efficient. It is important that such observations should be followed up by an interview to obtain the co-operation of the person under observation; * office conditions these should be examined, as poor ventilation, inadequate or excessive temperatures, or poor lighting can adversely affect staff efficiency. Often the observation will be carried out in an informal way but it may be useful on occasion to, for example, work at a users desk, so as to observe directly the way that customer orders are dealt with. It is important to realise that a user may put on a performance whilst under observation and that this reduces the value of the information gathered. Documenting the results of analysis A number of standard approaches, apart from narrative description, can be used to document the result of the system analysis, including: data flow diagrams (DFDs); organisation charts system flowcharts. Their applications are illustrated in the following section, which examines the categories of information, which need to be gathered and recorded during a system investigation. Categories of system information The major categories of information which need to be gathered involve: * functional relationships and data flows; * personnel and jobs; * inputs; * processes; * outputs; * storage. Functional relationships and data flows A business has a number of functional areas, such as Sales, Accounts, Stock Control and Purchasing, each having its own information system. However, the computerisation of a system in one functional area cannot be carried out without considering its effects on the rest of the business. Information systems within a business interact with and affect one another. The business, as an entity, also interacts with and is influenced by individuals and organisations in the surrounding environment and the businesss individual information systems should be co-ordinated to allow the achievement of overall business objectives. The data flows between individual functional areas can be illustrated with the use of a data flow diagram. Personnel and jobs It is possible to design a computerised system without involving staff, but it is likely to be less successful, partly because users can provide valuable insights into the practical aspects of system operation and partly because they will feel less motivated if they have had little or no influence on the final design. A formal organisation chart can be used to gain an overall picture of staff relationships and responsibilities but it should be borne in mind that designated and actual job responsibilities can differ radically. For example, it may turn out that a junior sales clerk is carrying out the checking of orders, which should be the responsibility of the sales supervisor. Thus, it may be necessary for the analyst to draw an alternative informal organisation chart to show the actual working relationships of staff. An example is given Apart from identifying working relationships between staff, it is useful to draw up brief job descriptions so that consultation on individual system procedures can take place with the appropriate staff. For example, a job description for a sales clerk may include the following activities: completion of standard order forms; checking stock availability; notification of orders to accounts. Therefore, although the sales departmental manager may have knowledge of such procedures, the sales clerk will have practical experience of their operation and should be consulted. System inputs A number of details concerning the data inputs to a system need to be established: * source. It may, for example, originate from a customer, a supplier, or another department in the business; * form. The data may arrive, for example, by telephone, letter, or a standard form such as an order form or suppliers invoice; * volume and frequency. For example, the number of orders received daily or weekly; * contents. For example. the individual items of data which appear on a suppliers invoice. Such information will allow the analyst to make recommendations on the most appropriate methods of computer input. The design of appropriate input methods also has to take account of several tasks involved with the collection and entry of data to a system: * recording. For example, the completion of a customer order form following receipt of a customer order by telephone; * transmission. For example, the order details may need to be transferred to another department or branch of the business for encoding and computer processing or they may be keyed in directly at the point of collection; * visual checking. It may be, for example, that a customer order has no quantities entered; * encoding. Verification procedures need to be designed to prevent transcription errors when data is encoded onto a computer storage medium for processing; * validation. Data is checked by a data vet program against set limits of validity, for example, account numbers may have to fall between a particular range of values. Thus, decisions need to be made concerning: (i) data collection procedures; (ii) methods for the transmission of data to the place of processing; (iii) data entry, data verification and data validation procedures. Data collection The designer needs to be aware of the available input technologies. These can be divided into two categories, keyboard entry and data capture technologies such as bar code reading, optical character reading (OCR) and optical mark reading (OMR), which allow direct input to the computer from specially designed input forms. Keyboard entry This is the most common method of input and requires the transcription of data from source documents. These can be designed to minimise the possibility of transcription errors at the data collection stage. Direct input Bar codes are pre-encoded and are thus immune from errors of transcription (assuming that the bar code is correct in the first place). Optical mark reading requires that pencil marks be used to indicate particular values from a limited set on a pre-designed form. Although no keyboard entry is required, mistakes may be made by the originator of the document and good design is therefore important. Data transmission It may be that no data transmission is necessary because the data is processed at the point of collection. For example, customer orders may be recorded on order forms at the sales desk and then taken into the next room for keying into the computer. Alternatively, the data may have to be transmitted some distance, perhaps to another floor of the building or to another building some miles away. A fundamental decision has to be made, whether to localise processing at the points of collection, or to use a central facility with data communications links from each location. Data entry The data entry method chosen will depend on the data collection methods used and may involve keyboard transcription from source documents or data may be captured directly from bar codes, OCR or OMR type documents. Where keyboard transcription is used, verification and validation procedures are likely to be interactive, in that the data entry operator has to respond to prompts on screen and make corrections as and when the system indicates Most small business computer systems will be used for on-line processing, where transactions are processed immediately with master files at the data entry stage. Consequently, validation and verification have to be carried out immediately prior to the processing of each transaction. On-screen verification At the end of each transaction entry, the operator is given the opportunity to scan the data on the screen and to re-enter any incorrect entries detected. This usually takes the form of a message at the bottom of the screen, which is phrased in a way such as Verify (yes or no). On-screen validation Character, data item and record checks, such as range and mode checks, can be made each time the RETURN key is pressed during data entry. For example, the screen may prompt for the en-try of an account number, which must be 6 digits long and be within the range 000001 to 500000. Any entry which does not conform with these parameters is erased and the prompt re-displayed for another attempt. Appropriate screen dialogue to allow the data entry operator to enter into a conversation with the computer is a crucial part of the input design process and is dealt with as a separate topic in Chapter 21. Batch data entry The type of keyboard transcription used will be affected by the type of input data. Where, for example, files only need to be updated weekly, transaction data may be batched and entered onto magnetic disk for processing at a later stage in one update program run. System processes All the clerical and machine-assisted processes, which are necessary to achieve the desired output from the given inputs, need to be identified. This will allow the systems analyst to determine the role of the computer in the new system, the programs necessary to take over the processing stages and the changes needed to clerical procedures, before and after computer processing. There are many instances when the processing requires not only the input data but also data retrieved from files. For example, to generate a customer invoice requires: i. input data concerning commodity codes and quantities ordered; ii. data from the stock master file concerning prices of items ordered by reference to the input commodity codes; iii. customer details from the customer master file. The above processes can be completely computerised but other processes may require human intervention. For example, before a customer order is processed, the customers credit status may need to be checked and referred to a supervisor before authorisation. Non-standard procedures Most processes will follow standards suitable for their particular circumstancesIt is important, however, that the investigation identifies and notes any non-standard procedures. For example, what procedure is followed when there is an insufficient quantity of an ordered item to completely fulfil a customer order? It may be that some customers will take part-orders, whilst others require the full quantity of an item or none at all. If non-standard procedures are needed, it is important to know their complexity, how often they are used and what extra information is required. Ideally, a system should be designed to cope with all possible circumstances, but cost sometimes forces a compromise. Document flow System flowcharts can be used to model the movement and interaction of documents and the data they record, as well as the processes involved. In order that the involvement of each section, department or personnel grouping in the processes can be identified, the system flowchart is divided into columns representing these divisions of responsibility. A system flowchart may use a range of standard symbols, which are illustrated in Figures below. A number of standards exist for the drawing of system flowcharts and the range of symbols used depends on which stage of the investigation and design process has been reached. For example, in the early stages of investigation of an existing manual system, there will be no representation of computer methods of input, processing, output or storage. At a later stage, when computer methods are being considered, it will be necessary to use suitable symbols in the flowchart Flow Chart Symbols Figure illustrates example of a manually operated order processing and invoicing system. The Figure illustrates example of a batch processing stock file update of a stock master file. Notice the sorting and validation stages, which are essential to batch processing systems Most business systems require alternative actions to be taken dependent upon some variable condition or circumstance. For example, 15 per cent customer discount may be allowed if the invoiced amount is paid within, say, 14 days of the invoice date, after which time all discount is lost Batch Processing Stock File Update Of A Stock Master File. In order that computerised and non-computerised processes can be properly designed, the investigation must identify all: * decisions made during system operation; * conditions and circumstances which lead to alternative decisions; * actions to be taken following a decision. Figure represents the computerised aspects of a similar system, but does not show detail procedures needed to prepare, for example, the data for input or the distribution of output. A computerised system must have the necessary clerical procedures to support it. Some decisions and consequent actions will need to be documented for clerical procedure guidelines, whilst others which involve computer processing will form part of program specifications used in program writing or as bases for choice of packaged software. System outputs * output design first requires identification of the following: * data items required as output. Some may be revealed in the existing system, whilst others may be requested by users as being desirable in any new system; * form of the output, for example, whether or not printed copy is required; * volume of data with each output and the frequency of the output. This information assists decisions on the type and number of output devices required. On-line orderprocessing Based on the above information, the following tasks can be carried out: i. selection of an appropriate output device to display or communicate the outputs. ii. designing output screen and document layouts. System storage (files) The storage of historic and current information is a vital part of any business system. For example, to produce a payslip not only requires transient input data concerning hours worked and sickness days but also data on rate of pay, tax code, deductions of tax and superannuating to date etc., which are held in the payroll master file stored on magnetic disk. Information on the contents of files will be gathered from existing manual files, together with responses from users regarding the output requirements of any new system. If packaged software is to be used then the contents of files will be dictated by the package, in which case some data item types may be surplus to requirements, whilst others which are required may not be available. File contents Each file consists of a number of logical records, each of which has a number of associated data items. For example, each stock record in a stock master file may include: Stock Code; Description; Unit Price; Minimum Stock Level; Re-order Quantity; Quantity in Stock. File organisation and access This concerns the logical ordering of records within a file. Database management systems (DBMS) An increasingly popular alternative to traditional file processing systems is to construct databases controlled by a DBMS. The design process requires that data is analysed according to subject area, for example, raw materials or staffing, rather than by department or functional area. Choice of storage device Choice is concerned with storage capacity, mode and speed of access. Data Flow Diagrams Data Flow Diagrams are a widely used technique for representing the information flows of a system. They are a particular feature of SSADM methodology (Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method). They arc used in the early stages of a systems analysis to provide an understanding of the present system. As the project proceeds they are used to represent the required and also as a basis for program specification. DFDs can be drawn at various levels of detail. At the high Level the DFD is known as a Context Diagram which shows the system as one box with flows going to and coming from external entities. This can then be decomposed into more detailed DFDs. A DFD can show the physical processing of the present system detailing the departments and individuals concerned in the work, or it can be a logical DFD which shows what happens to the data rather than how the processing is carried out. A logical DFD is useful as it frees the analyst from being over influenced by the present system. Purpose of A Data flow diagram It is a diagrammatic representation of information flows within a system showing: * how information enters and leaves the system. * what changes the information. * where information is stored. A DFD is also useful to: * show the boundaries and scope of the system. * check the completeness of the analyses * ensure that all information flows and activities have been considered. * show the major functional areas of the system and therefore identify particular program requirements. DFDs can he used by both technical and non-technical staff and is used in discussions between the analyst and the user. One of the greatest strengths of DFDs is that they can be used to describe a system at several levels. Components of DFDs External Entity The source of information provided to the system. Or the recipient of information provided by the system. An oval shape represents it. If understanding of the DFD can be enhanced then an external entity may be drawn more than once. Process A process transforms or manipulates data within the system. It is represented by a box and will include a numeric identifier, the location of the process, and the process identifier. When naming processes begin with a verb and follow it by an object. e.g. Make Delivery, Receive payment. The object should always be singular. Data Store Data stores may be manual or computer files, and represent the place where a process places data so that it can be retrieved later. Each data store is labelled with the letter M for manual or D for computer and is given a number. Data Flow Represented by an arrow which should be labelled with the data that is being carried (never use a verb on a data flow). Boundary A boundary is sometimes drawn around a DFD to show the limits of what is being investigated. Levels of DFD Level 0 DFD (Context Diagram) Shows the entire system a single black box communicating with the external entities. Level 1 DFD An outline DFD using typically up to 12 process boxes. It shows: * system boundaries, * external entities * main system flows, * main system functions. * data stores. Level 2 and 3 DFD Successively more detailed DFDs showing up to 8 process boxes per DFD. Data Flow Diagrams How do you start? Case study Example Draw a Data flow diagram of the following scenario Data flow diagrams A manufacturing company has a strict health and safety policy. They have a small health and safety department, which maintains safety levels in the organisation. They require that employees report any problems to them if they discover faults within the organisation of a hazardous or potentially hazardous nature. Reports from employees are received in the Health and Safety department either by telephone, e-rnail or internal memo. This information is received by the health and safety administrator who logs the calls on his fault logging computer database. The computer database issues a unique problem number, which is given to the head of department of the employee highlighting the fault. The head of department is also provided with details of the nature of the problem. There are two health and safety inspectors employed by the organisation who investigate the problems when they occur. They are based in the health and safety department and are given the details of the problem and the fault number from the computer database by the administrator who logs the assignment of the task on the fault logging database. When the problem is investigated and therefore the task is completed the inspectors contact the administrator to advise them of the situation. The administrator advises the particular head of department that the necessary work has been carded out and the task is closed in the fault logging database. 1. Pick out relevant information and place in tabular form External entity Processes Data stores Data. flows employee report problem fault logging fault details head of dept collect problem ID No health and safety inspectors close problem Fault No assignment details Completed details Fault closed details Health and Safety Department Fault Reporting System 2. Context Diagram (no data stores) 3. Produce the Data Flow diagram Example 1 A purchasing department receives a purchase requisition from the stores. The requisition is checked, and an invalid requisition is returned to the stores for correction. An order is made out using a file of approved suppliers, and sent to the appropriate supplier. A copy order is filed. The requisition is filed. When the goods arc received the invoice is compared with the filed copy order and an invalid invoice is returned to the supplier. Valid invoices are passed to the accounts department for payment, and fulfilled orders are filed. Draw a Level 0 and level 1 DFD for the purchase requisition system. Example 2 When an invoice is received from a supplier, it is checked against a file of authorised purchases. If the invoice does not much an authorised purchase it is returned to the supplier with, a querying letter. If the invoice matches an authorised purchase, but is for an incorrect amount then it is returned to the supplier with a standard form. If the invoice reconciles, a payment authorisation is made out. A cheque is then sent to the supplier, and the invoice and the authorisation are filed. Draw a level 0 and Level 1 DFD for the system. Example 3 This case study is based on the video issue recording system of the Gentlepeoples Video Library Club (GVLC). GVLC specialises in obscure videos that are not readily available from other sources. GVLC lends only to members of the Video Society part of the exclusive and very desirable Gentlepeoples Club. Details of finance are outside the scope of the investigation. Any member of the club is automatically a member of the library. Club membership is for one year; a few new members are admitted on 1 January each year; new members are not admitted during the year. The library is set up along conventional lines, though members are not restricted as to the number of videos they may borrow at any one time. Videos are requested for return only if required by another member. Most active users of the library regularly change their videos. Two or three copies of popular titles are available. In order to borrow a video a member selects it takes it to the issue desk and gives the video and his club membership card to the librarian. The librarian takes the video ID card from the video sleeve and adds the membership number to the card. The librarian places the card in the loans file and the member leaves with the video. When a member returns a video. He or she presents the video to the librarian. The librarian finds the video card in the loans file and places the card in the video sleeve before returning the video to the library shelves. To reserve a video, which is on, can. A member asks the librarian and leaves their membership number. The Librarian finds a relevant video in the loans file and adds the members number on the reservation column on the video card. The librarian also makes a note of the member who has the video on loan and completes a return request card addressed to that member. The address is taken from the library copy of the club membership book. When the reserved video is returned the librarian puts the video under the counter and completes a Reservation Ready card addressed to the member who requested the reservation again taking the address from the membership book. Tine member requiring he video can then pick the video up from the librarian and have it issued in the usual manner. Members make many enquiries of the librarians: typical questions include is the video entitled Dziadek on loan? Which video did actress Anna Kucharski appear in? have we a video entitled Son of Arturo? Have we any videos on the subject Right Action? The librarians are able to answer these queries by inspecting the loans file the actor index the subject index and the title index. In addition to the above duties the librarians receive new videos from the social committee of the club. The selection ordering and payment for the videos is outside the scope of this investigation. On receipt of the new video the librarian has to make out a video card for insertion in the video sleeve and the relevant entries for the indexes. The librarians are also responsible for amending the library copy of the membership book with changes of address and at the end of the year far collecting the new membership bock from the Club Secretary. Answers Example 3 GLVC Video Library Context Diagram Level 1 DFD Activity 1 College Library 1. Zero Normal Form 0NF List Attributes Stud# Name Address TG Tutor Book# Title ISBN ReturnDate Identify Primary key and repeating attributes. Write out in 0NF using standard notation:- When an entity has has a Repeating Attribute (e.g book has several authors) The repeating attribute is shown with a line over it STUDENT(Stud#, Name, Address, TG, Tutor, Book#, Title, ISBN, ReturnDate) 2. First Normal Form -1NF Rule- An entity in First Normal Form must not contain any repeating attributes. Remove repeated attributes to form a new entity LOAN_BOOK. There are now 2 entities in 1NF:- STUDENT(Stud#, Name, Address, TG, Tutor,) LOAN_BOOK(Book#,Stud#, Title, ISBN, ReturnDate) (A composite key is required to uniquely identify each loan of a particular book) 3. Second Normal Form 2NF Rule An entity is in 2NF if it is 1NF and all non key attributes are fully functionally dependent on the whole of the primary key. ( 2NF applies to entities with composite keys, that is a primary key composed of two or more attibutes. An entity which is already in 1NF, with a single attribute primary key is automatically in at least 2NF) The STUDENT entity has a single attribute primary key and is therefore already in 2NF. The LOAN_BOOK entity has a composite primary key so we need to examine all the non-key attributes to ensure they are fully functionally dependent on the whole of the primary key. Non-key attribute Dependent on:- Title Book# ISBN Book# ReturnDate Book#, Stud# Therefore Title and ISBN need to be removed to form a new entity BOOK. Book# is included to provide a link. The tables in 2NF are now:- STUDENT(Stud#, Name, Address, TG, Tutor,) LOAN_BOOK(Book#,Stud#, ReturnDate) BOOK(Book#, Title, ISBN) 4. Third Normal Form 3NF Rule To be in 3NF an entity must be in 2 NF (and therefore in 1NF) and contain no non-key dependencies. Fields which are not part of the primary key must always depend on the primary key and not on anything else, such as another non key field. Consider the entity STUDENT, Name Address depend on the primary key but Tutor depends on the Tutor Group code TG and not on Stud#. They should therefore be removed to form a new entity, TUTOR. A copy of the code TG is left in the student table to form a link. STUDENT(Stud#, Name, Address, TG) TUTOR(TG, Tutor) Consider the entity LOAN_BOOK, return date is dependent on the primary key and therefore already in 3NF. Consider the entity BOOK, title is dependent on the ISBN and not on the Book#, this should be removed to create a new entity ISBN. A copy of ISBN is left in the BOOK entity to provide a link. BOOK(Book#, ISBN) ISBN(ISBN, Title) The final tables are:- STUDENT(Stud#, Name, Address, TG) TUTOR(TG, Tutor) LOAN_BOOK(Book#,Stud#, ReturnDate) BOOK(Book#, ISBN) ISBN(ISBN, Title) H. T. Harvey 6-Feb-03 1 of 18 Chapter 18

Definition and Examples of Title Case and Headline Style

Definition and Examples of Title Case and Headline Style Title case is one of the conventions used for capitalizing the words in a title, subtitle, heading, or headline: capitalize the first word, the last word, and all major words in between. Also known as  up style and headline style. Not all style guides agree on what distinguishes a major word from a minor word. See the guidelines below from the American Psychological Association (APA Style), The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago Style), and the Modern Language Association (MLA Style). Examples and Observations Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day, by Judith Viorst and Ray Cruz(the title of a book in title case)A Matter of Concern: Kenneth Burke, Phishing, and the Rhetoric of National Insecurity by Kyle Jensen (Rhetoric Review, 2011)(the title of a journal article in title case)The Lover Tells of the Rose in His Heart by William Butler Yeats(the title of a poem in title case)Probing Link to Bin Laden, U.S. Tells Pakistan to Name Agents(a headline in title case from The New York Times)APA Style: Major Words in Titles and HeadingsCapitalize major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper. Conjunctions, articles, and short prepositions are not considered major words; however, capitalize all words of four letters or more. Capitalize all verbs (including linking verbs), nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns. When a capitalized word is a hyphenated compound, capitalize both words. Also, capitalize the first word after a colon or a dash in a title . . . .Exception: In titles of books and articles in reference lists, capitalize only the first word, the first word after a colon or em dash, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the second word of a hyphenated compound.(Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed. American Psychological Association, 2010) Chicago Style: Principles of Headline-Style CapitalizationThe conventions of headline style are governed mainly by emphasis and grammar. The following rules, though occasionally arbitrary, are intended primarily to facilitate the consistent styling of titles mentioned or cited in text and notes:Capitalize the first and last words in titles and subtitles (but see rule 7), and capitalize all other major words (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and some conjunctionsbut see rule 4).Lowercase the articles the, a, and an.Lowercase prepositions, regardless of length, except when they are used adverbially or adjectivally (up in Look Up, down in Turn Down, on in The On Button, to in Come To, etc.) or when they compose part of a Latin expression used adjectivally or adverbially (De Facto, In Vitro, etc.).Lowercase the conjunctions and, but, for, or, and nor.Lowercase to not only as a preposition (rule 3) but also as part of an infinitive (to Run, to Hide, etc.), and lowercase as in any grammatical function.Lowercase the part of a proper name that would be lowercased in text, such as de or von.Lowercase the second part of a species name, such as fulvescens in Acipenser fulvescens, even if it is the last word in a title or subtitle.(The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th ed. The University  of Chicago Press, 2010) MLA Style: Titles of Works in the Research PaperThe rules for capitalizing titles are strict. In a title or subtitle, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Therefore, capitalize the following parts of speech:Nouns . . .Pronouns . . .Verbs . . .Adjectives . . .Adverbs . . .Subordinating conjunctionsDo not capitalize the following parts of speech when they fall in the middle of a title:Articles . . .Prepositions . . .Coordinating conjunctions . . .The to in infinitives . . .Use a colon and a space to separate a title from a subtitle, unless the title ends in a question mark or an exclamation point. Include other punctuation only if it is part of the title or subtitle.(MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. The Modern Language Association of America, 2009)The difference between title case and every word in capitals is minor, and we think that very few of your users will notice. But Opt For Every Word In Capitals And A Few Of Your Users Will Find Themselves Mentally Correcting Every Wrongly Capitalized Word. Its a bit like the use of apostrophes: most people dont notice whether or not you are correct; some people definitely do and their irritation about your mistakes will distract them from the smooth flow of questions and answers.Our bottom line: opt for sentence case if you can.(Caroline Jarrett and Gerry Gaffney, Forms That Work: Designing Web Forms for Usability. Morgan Kaufmann, 2009)

Process-Centered Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Process-Centered Management - Essay Example This kind of management is one where all activities leading towards the achievement of organizational goals, are process driven with a deep-rooted influence on the channelization of material and information along the way. This has been regarded as an emerging trend where work in progress is concerned owing to the fact that it provides observations of a revolution that's only just begun. The natural leaders are among the first to have taken to and moving already from a procedure-based culture towards a process-based culture; from micro to macro; from a microscopic view to a telescopic view. Procedure-based task analysis has now been very systematically replaced by process-related performance technology where it is now believed that the kinds of work that people do, the jobs they hold, the skills they need, the careers they follow, the roles managers play, the principles of strategy that enterprises follow will shift towards handling processes that they are most suited to. The shift ha s been carried forth from the revolution of ideas, in which the keyword is radical, to the organized reworking of a society in need, in which the keyword is processed. Apart from banking, process centered management has been extremely effective in the IT industry as well. It is in this context that the as an invisible economic asset, there are important opportunities that are inherent in the concept of process-centered management. This has been triggered by the paradigm shift discussed above, where the time spent in inventory cycle is more important than the size of inventory held. We will now regard the company we are studying in order to reach more understanding of core processes as well as the marcoms outcome and other projections. Marcoms may be defined as the tryst between communication and marketing, a proportionate combination of which is required to give sales that vital push.

Function of afterlife Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Function of afterlife - Essay Example Written in the form of interviews conducted from the famous souls had already departed from the world, the author has given the message that the individuals leading a life in service of humanity in one way or the other would be in peace and under the blessings of the Lord in heavens. On the contrary, the persons, who had inflicted the pains and sufferings upon the fellow humans, are sure to undergo punishments in inferno in afterlife (31). As a result, the individuals including Shakespeare, Edison, Pasteur and others, would be blessed against their wonderful contributions carried out in the field of art, medicine, literature and others. Similarly, the despotic rulers, evil-minded politicians, pagans and purported dogmatists would have to undergo the wrath of Lord for their wickedness and misdeeds (48). Hence, if the individuals give up and forget believing in the messages and lessons manifestly mentioned in the Holy Scriptures that humans are not responsible to anyone after death, ev eryone will start inflicting harms, hurt and throbbing pains upon others (67). On the contrary, strong faith in God as well as His system, based upon justice, truth and benevolence, teaches the humans to be kind, sympathetic and compassionate towards others. Consequently, the author has conveyed the universal message of love and benevolence through his under-investigation work, which urges the readers to observe chastity, mercifulness and compassion towards one

Marketing Management of Ocean Park Essay Example for Free

Marketing Management of Ocean Park Essay Brief Description of Ocean Park Hong Kong Ocean Park Hong Kong is one of the most popular theme parks in the world. It was officially opened on January 10th 1977 by the governor of Hong Kong and was funded by the Hong Kong Jockey Club on July 1st 1987, with a Government-appointed Board. It constitutes of marine mammal, oceanarium, animal and amusement as a theme park, located in Wong Chuk Hang and Nam Long Shan in the Southern District of Hong Kong. Reason for Choosing Ocean Park Hong Kong Ocean Park Hong Kong ruled the local amusement park landscape alone. In 2005, Hong Kong Disneyland had arrived and busted out the Park from its near 30-year comfort zone. However, Ocean Park has secured the prestigious 2012 Applause Award, which was the first in Asia to be rewarded. The reason for choosing Ocean Park Hong Kong is thus to study how effectively the marketing strategies are used in the Park against its main competitor, Hong Kong Disneyland. SWOT Analysis A Strength of Ocean Park Hong Kong is the numerous attractions with different levels of amusements ranging from roller coasters to aquariums. Another one is the five major annual events throughout the year: a varying Animal in High Definition Month, the Ocean Park Summer Splash, the Halloween Bash, Christmas and Chinese New Year celebrations. Yet, the most obvious weakness is the several incidents happened in the past five years. Panda attacking a feeder, dying of Chinese sturgeons and sudden pause of attractions – all these had surprised the public’s confidence to the park. In terms of opportunity, there is a proposed MTR station on the east of South Island Line for Ocean. Park Hong Kong. The station would help attract more customers for the Park because it will be easier and more convenient to visit. The major threat is from the future development plan of Hong Kong Disneyland, which is expected to build more themed areas, rides and hotels in the coming decade to match the increasing needs. There will be keen competition between Ocean Park Hong Kong and Disneyland after such an expansion. Marketing Objectives Since Ocean Park Hong Kong aims to become a leader among the theme park industry, its marketing objective is to strive for a place in the top ten of the total number of visitors of the Global Attractions Attendance report by AECOM within two years. Moreover, the Park hopes to increase its profit by at least 20% within two years due to the huge amount of visitors every year. Last, due to the accidents happened in recent years, customers’ satisfaction towards Ocean Park Hong Kong has been damaged. To increase customer retention and satisfaction, the Park should make an effort to ensure there will be no accident in the coming two years Reference list 1 / 2 Rubin, J. (2013). Global attendence attractions report. Retrieved from http://www. aecom. com/deploy edfiles/Internet/Capabilities/Economics/_documents/ThemeMuseumIndex_2013. pdf (2014). Vision and Mission. Retrieved from http://www. oceanpark. com. hk/html/en/footer/corporate-information/vision. html (2014). Annual Report. Retrieved from http://www. oceanpark. com. hk/doc/common/footer/ar/ophk_ar12-13. pdf Ocean Park, Hong Kong. (n.d. ). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 7, 2014 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ocean_Park_Hong_Kong Pelle, J. (2012). Liseberg The Applause Award. Retrieved October 5, 2014 from http://liseberg. com/en/home/Entertainment/Awards1/ Nip, A. (2014). Annual tourists to Hong Kong could rise to 70 million in three years, commission says,SCMP,17 January from http://www. scmp. com/news/hong-kong/article/1407779/visitor- numbers-can-rise-70m-three-years-commission-says? page=all POWERED BY TCPDF (WWW. TCPDF. ORG).

Carbon Fiber :: essays research papers

Carbon fiber Carbon fibers are produced by using heat to chemically change rayon or acrylic fibers. Carbonization occurs at temperatures of 1000 ° C to 2500 ° C in an inert atmosphere. Carbon fibers are converted to graphite at temperatures above 2500 ° C. Carbon and graphite fibers can also be made from pitch, a residual petroleum product. Products that use carbon fibers include heat-shielding materials, aircraft fuselages and wings, spacecraft structures, and sports equipment. You can golf, ride, sail, tennis, drive, cycle, fish, decorate or even fly Carbon Fiber! Carbon fibers are derived from one of two precursor materials Pitch and Pan. Pitch is based carbon fibers have lower mechanical properties and are therefore rarely used in critical structural applications. Pan based carbon fibers are under continual development and are used in composites to make materials of great strength and lightness. The raw material of Pan, acrylonitrile, is a product of the chemical industry and can be manufactured as follows: Acrylonitrile is used as a raw material in acrylic fibers, ABS resin, AS resin, synthetic rubber, acrylamide and other materials. Global production capacity is 4.67 million tons, approximately 60% of which is consumed for acrylic fibers. In the early manufacturing processes acetylene and hydrogen cyanide were used as a raw material, whereas today nearly all AN is manufactured using what is called the Sohio process, whereby an ammoxidation reaction are applied from inexpensive propylene and ammonia. Technological advances, particularly surrounding research into improved catalysts for the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sohio process, are proceeding, promoted by a concern for energy conservation and lessening the environmental loading. The research aims include improved productivity, reduced byproducts, and lesser wastewater and waste gas. The Sohio process was perfected in 1960 by The Standard Oil Co. of Ohio, owing to the development of an epoch-making catalyst that synthesizes AN in a single- stage reaction using propylene and ammonia. The reaction took place using the fluid-bed od. The P-Mo-Bi group is used as the catalyst and favorable fluidized conditions are maintained by adjusting the physical properties of the catalyst. The reaction gas contains not only AN, but also acetonitrile, hydrogen cyanide and other byproduct gasses, so AN products are obtained by having the reaction gas absorbed into water, then using evaporation separation. The Sohio process was epoch-making at the time it was developed, but improvements have been made in response to the following conditions: The AN yield of approximately 60% was not very high; The process circulated and used large amounts of water, requiring a lot of

The Robot Tree A New Ecofriendly Technology Environmental Sciences Essay

The paper trades with the construct of a man-made tree called â€Å" ROBOT TREE † . The Robot tree has the possible to absorb C dioxide which is the major cause for the planetary heating. Although methane, azotic oxide, ozone, fluorinated compounds besides account for the planetary heating, C dioxide is the major gas which causes ninety per centum of the planetary heating. The definition of planetary heating, causes and effects of planetary heating, the solution we propose, how the automaton tree ( man-made tree ) gives a solution to the consequence and the feasibleness of the man-made tree are profoundly discussed in this paper. This paper can move as a guidebook to cognize about the engineering with its seeds and weeds and to acquire the importance of the engineering in the coming hereafter.Introduction:We all know that woods are the hoarded wealths of our Earth. But now, world himself has started to destruct woods -the hoarded wealths of our Earth. By cutting trees, non mer ely that the rainfall will be reduced, besides the temperature will raise tremendously, which consequences in planetary heating. This causes injury to the whole world. Thus the scientists are giving call to protect forest and salvage world. Research is traveling on sing the issue. In our paper we propose an amazing solution to salvage our Earth from planetary warming.The nursery consequence is being accelerated by releases of certain gases to the ambiance that are doing the Earth ‘s temperature to lift.â€Å" WHAT IS GLOBAL WARMING? ? ?Global Warming is defined as the addition of the mean temperature on Earth. As the Earth is acquiring hotter, catastrophes like hurricanes, drouths and inundations are acquiring more frequent. †Over the last 100 old ages, the mean temperature of the air near the EarthA?s surface has risen a little less than 1A ° Celsius ( 0.74 A ± 0.18A °C, or 1.3 A ± 0.32A ° Fahrenheit ) . Does non look all that much? It is responsible for the conspicuous addition in storms, inundations and ramping forest fires we have seen in the last 10 old ages, though, say scientists. A Their informations show that an addition of one grade Celsius makes the Earth heater now than it has been for at least a thousand old ages. Out of the 20 warmest old ages on record, 19 have occurred since 1980. The three hottest old ages of all time observed have all occurred in the last eight old ages, even. 180px-2000_Year_Temperature_ComparisonMAIN CAUSES FOR GLOBAL Heating:Carbon dioxide, H2O vapor, azotic oxide, methane and ozone are some of the natural gases doing planetary heating.CARBON DIOXIDENinety-three per centum of all emanationsGenerating power by firing C based fossil fuels like natural gas, oil, and coal, decomposition, accounting for about one one-fourth of all planetary emanations.MethaneTwenty times more effectual in pin downing heat in our ambiance 25 times every bit powerful as C dioxideAgricultural activities, landfills.NITROUS OXIDEAgricultural dirt direction, carnal manure direction, sewerage intervention, Mobile and stationary burning of fossil fuel, adipic acid production, and azotic acid production.OzoneAutomobile fumes and industrial procedures.HYDROFLURO COMPOUNDS ( HFCs ) .Industrial procedures such as foam production, infrigidation, dry cleansing, chemical fabrication, and semiconducting material fabrication.PERFLURONIATEDCOMPOUNDS ( PFCs ) .Smelting of alum inumHealth AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS:Greenhouse gas emanations could do a 1.8 to 6.3A ° Fahrenheit rise in temperature during the following century, if atmospheric degrees are non reduced.Produce utmost conditions events, such as drouths and inundations.Threaten coastal resources and wetlands by raising sea degree.Increase the hazard of certain diseases by bring forthing new genteelness sites for plagues and pathogens.Agricultural parts and forests are besides susceptible to alterations in clime that could ensue in increased insect populations and works disease.The debasement of natural ecosystems could take to cut down biological diverseness.WHAT GLOBAL Heating EFFECTS ARE EXPECTED FOR THE FUTURE?To foretell the hereafter planetary heating effects, several nursery gas emanation scenarios were developed and fed into computing machine theoretical accounts. They project for the following century that, without specific policy alterations Global average temperature should increase by between 1.4 and 5.8A °C ( 2.5 to 10A °F ) . The Northern Hemisphere screen should diminish further, but the Antarctic ice sheet should increase. The sea degree should lift by between 9 and 88 centimeter ( 3.5 † to 35 † ) . Other alterations should happen, including an addition in some utmost conditions events.After 2100, human induced planetary heating effects are projected to prevail for many centuries.The sea degree should go on lifting for 1000s of old ages after the clime has been stabilized. We have weather up to 40 degree Celsius now.IMPACTS OF RISE IN MAJOR GREEN HOUSE GAS CO2:In air the C dioxide concentration should be about 330 ppm ( parts per million ) .But due to environmental research workers the C dioxide content will increase as follows,2025i? 405 to 469 ppm2050i? 445 to 640 ppm2100i? 540 to 970 ppmWe have weather up to 40 degree Celsius now. It is expected that the conditions will increase in Tamil Nadu as follows.In 2025 i? 0.4 to 1.1 grade CelsiusIn 2050 i? 0.8 to 2.6 grade CelsiusIn 2100 i? 1.4 to 5.8 grade CelsiusSolution WE PROPOSE:We all know that woods are the hoarded wealths of our Earth. But, adult male started to destruct woods and the scientists are giving call to salvage for est. We all know that forests aid to protect the Earth from planetary heating. By cutting trees, non merely that the rainfall will be reduced, besides the temperature will raise tremendously, which causes injury to the whole world. The research is traveling on all the clip to salvage the world from planetary heating. Now, it has been found that automaton trees will assist to undertake the job of planetary heating. In the air, the C dioxide content should be 330 ppm ( portion per million ) . Day by twenty-four hours it is increasing which consequences in planetary heating.WHAT IS ROBOT TREE? ? ?The scientists are seeking to do automaton to execute assorted activities to cut down the physical and mental work of human being. The combination of nature and automatons is called Robotany. The scientists Jill Coffin, John Taylor and Daniel Bauen are researching on automaton tree. The robot tree does non look like our ordinary tree. The constructions of the root, roots and foliages are prese nt in the automaton tree. Does robot corner aid to work out the job of planetary heating? I have read in a magazine late that the experiment done by the research workers at Madurai Kamaraj University on automaton tree is successful. Hats off to them. It is truly happy intelligence. We have studied in history that the male monarchs of olden yearss had planted trees on both sides of the route. In the same manner we hope that all the roads will hold robot trees on both sides in future to forestall planetary heating and salvage the Earth. It is said that one automaton tree is equal to 1000 natural trees. Each automaton tree looks more like a elephantine fly flyswat so as to stay as guards of world Klaus Lackner, a professor of Geophysicss at Columbia University, is working on an interesting construct: A â€Å" man-made trees † .A The thought is to reproduce the procedure of photosynthesis to gaining control and shop monolithic sums of CO2 gas. About 90,000 dozenss of C dioxide a twelvemonth, approximately the sum emitted yearly by 15,000 autos, could be captured by the construction. Paired with a windmill, the carbon-capture tree would bring forth about 3 megawatts of power, Lackner calculates, doing the operation self-sufficient in energy. synthetic_tree The scientists are seeking to do automaton to execute assorted activities to cut down the physical and mental work of human being. The combination of nature and automatons is called Robotany. The scientists Jill Coffin, John Taylor and Daniel Bauen are presently researching on automaton tree.HOW DOES A ROBOT TREE FUNCTION? ? ?Merely conceive of a normal tree. A normal will hold a root, root and foliages. In the same manner, the automaton tree besides has root, root, subdivision and foliage like normal tree. Some plastic poles are fixed in the root portion and in between solar home bases are fixed which act as foliages. In the large poles little holes are made and little poles are fixed. This will absorb C dioxide in the air. In the interior of large poles there will be calcium hydroxide liquid and the captive C dioxide will be dissolved in it. The solar home bases produce current and base on balls current inside the root, which will divide C and O. Oxygen, H and vapor will come out. The C will move with H2O and go carbonaceous acid. The carbonaceous acid will go through down through automatons and will be absorbed by the dirt Once once more. A study of the signifier and building of A Tree for Anable Basin A new â€Å" air extractor † engineering presented by Klaus Lackner, a professor of Geophysicss at Columbia ‘s Earth Institute, offers something no other C gaining control engineering on the pulling board has. Unlike conventional C gaining control and storage ( besides known as geosequestration ) , which absorbs C02 on-site ( i.e. the flush watercourse of emanations from power workss ) , air extractors absorb C dioxide from any location on the planet. This means that CO2 emanations can be captured from about all large-emitting sources-from stationary mills and power workss to autos and planes in gesture. These man-made trees can â€Å" thrive † in any location. man-made treesA computer-generated image of Lackner ‘s â€Å" man-made trees. †Man-made trees do n't precisely look like your mean tree with green foliages and roots. Although the design is non finalized, Lackner predicts that the device would look more like a station with Venetian blinds strung across it ; a boxlike extractor raised about 1,000 pess tall, adorned with scaffolding lined with liquid Na hydrated oxide ( normally known as lye ) . When exposed, Na hydrated oxide ( lye ) is an absorbent of CO2. So, as air flows through the Venetian blind â€Å" foliages of the tree † , the Na hydrated oxide will adhere the CO2, sifting out cleansing agent, about 70-90 % less CO2 concentrated air on the other side. Lackner estimates that an country of Na hydrated oxide about the size of a big Television screen ( a 20 inch diagonal ) and a metre in deepness could absorb 20 dozenss of CO2 a twelvemonth. Paired with a windmill, a carbon-capture tree could bring forth about 3 megawatts of power.IS IT FEASIBLE? ? ?The chemical procedure of utilizing Ca or Na hydrated oxide to absorb CO2 has been known for old ages but the inquiry of whether it can be done in an low-cost energy efficient mode has non yet been to the full answered. Constructing and raising the aggregator device is merely 20 % of the cost ; the balance of the cost involves prising the CO2 loose from the absorbent and hive awaying it- an energy intensive procedure. The dorsum of the envelope computation of entire cost supposes 3000 to 5000 rupees per ton captured, which is big as compared to the 1000-2000 rupees per ton on cost that advocates of a C revenue enhancement or cap-and-trade strategy believe will stabilise atmospheric emanations of CO2. It may look like excessively immerse a cost to closely see, but Lackner believes â€Å" it ‘s deserving looking at things that start out even five times excessively expensive â€Å" . DEVELOPING CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE ( CCS ) : carbon-capture-and-storage1 Despite common concern that CCS, and therefore air gaining control excessively, will deter our society from traveling to clean energy options. Fossil fuels are non running out anytime shortly, and if we were to turn all of them into C dioxide, we ‘ll hold a clime calamity. We may run out of oil and gas ; you can be disbelieving of that. But we wo n't run out of coal. We either abandon dodo fuels instantly within the following 50 old ages or figure out a manner to make CCS. â€Å" As we head toward 450, 550, even 750ppm this century, environmental leaders are acquiring serious about C gaining control and storage. A 2005 IPCC study concluded that â€Å" C gaining control and storage â€Å" has the possible to cut down overall extenuation costs and increase flexibleness in cut downing nursery gases † . Existing C gaining control engineering can cut down CO2 emanations from coal-burning or natural-gas power workss by 80 to 90 per centum, estimates the IPCC.energy efficiency and some renewables are cheaper now, but if the clime begins to tip out of control, so C gaining control and storage can supply a planet-saving insurance policy.BASIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS WITH ROBOT TREE:The reaction of Na hydrated oxide with C dioxide ( as carbonaceous acid ) occurs basically in two stairss, foremost a reaction from carbonaceous acid to bicarbonate and so to carbonate. This is a simple acid-base reaction. CO2 is an acerb anhydrite and NaOH is a base. So reaction gives the salt Na2CO3 and H2O another possible merchandise is the salt Na2CO3 that is produced if a 1:2 ratio of CO2 and NaOH is used. A little per centum of wet nowadays in the absorptive stuff, ( about 3 % ) is of import. CO2 reacts with this wet to organize carbonaceous acid,CO2+H 2O- & gt ; H2CO3Which in bend reacts with the hydrated oxide to organize the salt of carbonaceous acid, or Na carbonate? The soaking up of C dioxide is expressed as follows: The merchandises of reaction are sodium carbonate and H2O.H2CO3 + NaOH – & gt ; NaHCO3 + H2ONaHCO3 + NaOH – & gt ; Na2CO3 + H2ODECARBITE:DECARBITEA ® is an engrossing merchandise. This merchandise is sodium hydroxide carried on a silica base. The natural affinity of Na hydrated oxide to acid gasses makes it a desirable stuff to utilize in the soaking up of the acid gas C dioxide. The Na hydrated oxide content in DECARBITEA ® is high, about 90 % , and histories for the aggressive merchandise public presentation and exceeding capacity for soaking up of C dioxide. The Na hydrated oxide content in DECARBITEA ® is high, about 90 % , and histories for the aggressive merchandise public presentation and exceeding capacity for soaking up of C dioxide. The universally recognized Carbon Dioxide absorbent, DECARBITEA ® is a consumable chemical absorbent. It is a specially formulated mixture of Sodium Hydroxide on to an inert silicon oxide bearer supplying a surface country particularly suited for the rapid, high public presentation and entire soaking up of CO2 on contact. Efficiency: For the rapid or high public presentation quantative soaking up of CO2 in the ppm scope DECARBITE is colour indicating, altering from light-green brown to white upon C dioxide impregnation. The soaking up of C dioxide remotion or any acerb gas utilizing DECARBITE is a chemical reaction, non a physical one. Carbon dioxide reacts with the Na hydrated oxide based absorbent and undergoes a complete chemical alteration. This alteration is irreversible ; therefore the absorbent can non be regenerated for reuse. This alteration is clearly perceptible and indicates when exhausted stuff is to be discarded. Occasionally, a status known as channeling can happen when the gas flow finds holes or countries of least opposition and a channel is formed. The gas flow follows these channels through the absorbent get the better ofing the intent of scouring out the C dioxide. DECARBITE eliminates this job in several ways ; the silicon oxide binding to the Na hydrated oxide keeps the atoms from adhering in the presence of wet which is formed as a by-product of the soaking up reaction. It besides aids in forestalling the absorbent to blend into a solid mass barricading gas flow and doing back force per unit area across the soaking up bed. The association reaction of NaOH with CO2 is at least 40 times faster than NaOH + HCl at all heights below the Na bed. Na species will non impact stratospheric ClOx and O3 chemical science. The transition of C dioxide to bicarbonate is complete at pH 8.3.Phenolphthalein can be used as a colour index for the titration.Decision:Energy is truly a topographic point where more engineering is perfectly necessary. About one and half a lakh automaton trees are adequate for sublimating C dioxide in the air for one twelvemonth, about. One automaton tree is said to hold the capacity to absorb 90,000 dozenss of C dioxide every twelvemonth. It is the sum of C dioxide released by 15,000 autos in one twelvemonth. But robot trees will non assist to convey rain. It will protect the Earth from planetary heating.Cost: ( app )10 pess robot tree-50,00200 pess robot tree-5 hundred thousand.The cost of the automaton tree may be high, but the cost of non holding outstanding engineering for planetary heating may be even higher. There are n't that many big scale beginnings of energy could be tapped at the graduated table the universe needs them. Hydro will ne'er be adequate, and neither will weave. Solar, atomic, and dodo could be adequate, but they all have defects. If we do n't put large stakes on all three, we could happen ourselves with none of them working, and we ‘ll hold energy crisis of unprecedented proportions. We have studied in history that the male monarchs of olden yearss had planted trees on both sides of the route. In the same manner we hope that all the roads will hold robot trees on both sides to forestall planetary heating and salvage the Earth. It is said that one automaton tree is equal to 1000 natural trees.â€Å" Implement automaton treesPrevent planetary heating,And therefore,Salvage the Earth! ! ! †

Amusement park dangers Essay

How many people have to die, or sustain serious injury from amusement park rides before the federal government steps in and regulates the amusement park industry? Rosy Esparza’s family had every right to believe that she would return from the Texas Giant roller coaster without harm or injury. However, Esparza fell to her death on the Texas Giant roller coaster at Six Flags Over Texas. Incidents like this are sadly becoming a more common event in the United States at amusement and waterparks. In fact, the number of fatalities per passenger mile on roller coasters is greater than the amount of tragedies on passenger trains, passenger buses, or passenger planes. These tragedies often occur because the rides are not independently inspected, inspections are not done frequently enough, accidents are not made public and the accidents are investigated by the parks. The federal government needs to create national safety standards for all rides at amusement parks, so that every amusement park patron can enjoy the park as it is intended without fear of injury or death. Less than three months after the death of Esparza the Texas Giant has been re-opened , and back in full operation. The roller coaster underwent extensive testing, and received approval from the Texas Department of Insurance to resume operations, however the findings of the testing are not available to the public due to ongoing litigation. Even though Texas Six Flags has claimed no fault for the Esparza accident; the park has added incremental and overlapping safety features. These safety features include redesigned restraint-bar pads and new seat belts. So the question is, are the department of insurance officials, who inspected this ride in the past, sufficient enough to make sure these rides are safe for future riders? Amusement park rides should be inspected by an independent third party, which has no financial interest in the amusement park. Having the insurance company inspect the rides is not sufficient; all rides should be investigated by inspectors with the mechanical aptitude to know if the ride is in proper working condition. The United States has trained safety inspectors for baby strollers, bikes, and motorized ride-on toys; shouldn’t rides that travel up to heights of 456 feet and at 128 miles per hour have safety inspectors also? Currently there are no federal regulations on amusement park rides, so there are no reliable national statistics of injuries on amusement park rides. Each state has its own regulations for amusement parks; some states do not have any regulations of amusement park rides. Many states do not have an inspection force and rely on insurance investigators to inspect and or approve these rides. However, most states do require the rides be inspected annually, but these regulations are not enforced. According to state records more than half of Pennsylvania’s permanent amusement parks and water parks did not turn in all of their required inspections. In fact, the state agency had no reports at all for 12 of the 117 state amusement and water parks. Following the death of a child on a roller coaster ride at Disney’s MGM studios in Orlando, Florida, lawmakers began the process of trying to pass the National Amusement Park Ride Safety Act. This act was introduced by Congressman Ed Markey, a Democrat from Massachusetts, in 2005. The act calls for fixed-site park rides to fall under the regulation act of the U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. The commission currently only oversees traveling carnival rides, because fixed-site theme park rides are exempt from federal oversight. Even though the fixed-site rides are rode more frequently than traveling carnival rides they are subject to less regulations. Many of these rides are operated hundreds of times a day, seven days per week but only inspected once during the year. There needs to be a regulation that all rides are to be inspected a minimum of quarterly to find any mechanical issues that may pose a danger to riders. Because some of these rides travel in excess of 100 miles per hour they should face similar safety standards as automobiles which do not travel at such a high rates of speed. Another issue with the absence of federal regulations among amusement park rides is that, when an accident or mechanical failure occurs, the parks are the ones conducting the investigation and the findings of the investigation are not made public. Also, if there is no media attention about the accident or mechanical failure, the accident is unknown to the public. The federal government should create a database for all amusement parks that includes all of the rides for each. The database should include all mechanical failures of all rides in the past 12 months, any accidents in the past 12 months and the last four quarterly inspections for the ride. That way, amusement park patrons can make informed decisions whether to go to certain amusement parks and ride particular rides. Amusement-park patrons should have the right to know the history of the park and all rides, prior to riding them. With all of the things that have federal regulations, it is hard to believe that amusement park rides do not have federal inspections and regulations. In an effort to ensure these rides are safe for the public to ride and enjoy, the federal government needs to establish national safety standards for all riders at amusement parks. If national safety standards and inspections can save the life of one person, aren’t they worth creating? Works Cited Moser, Jeff. â€Å"Family sues over Texas Giant death on the same day Six Flags says it will reopen ride. † The Dallas Morning News September 10, 2013: Newspaper Source. Web. 31 Oct. 2013 Pataro, Luca. â€Å"Scary rides, scary risks: more than 300 million people visit U. S. amusement facilities and safely enjoy 1. 8 billion rides each year. But for a small number of thrill-seekers, good times can become a matter of life and death. † Risk Management. Aug. 2007: 50+. Biography In Context. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. Watson, Stephen T. â€Å"Recent tragedies strap in safety as peak concern. † Buffalo News, The (NY) 23 Aug. 2011: Newspaper Source. Web. 26 Oct. 2013.

Health Care Regulations Essays

Health Care Regulations Essays Health Care Regulations Paper Health Care Regulations Paper Changes and reforms in policy affecting health care facilities are well documented by professional and academic publications (Barr, 2002). These changes and reforms, which aim to improve the provision of health care service, are adopted in order to allow health care facilities to better meet the needs of their patients (Barr, 2002). Thus, there are reforms on the aspect of health care pensions, which are adopted to protect consumers in this field where they know very little (Barr, 2002). Recent changes applied in agency regulation and policy in the United States are those implemented by the Better Home Health Care Agency, Inc., which holds office and provides health care services in Nassau, Suffolk, Queens, Brooklyn, Bronx, Manhattan and Westchester since 1988 (Barr, 2002). Such recent changes are focused on the provision of more efficient service and the availability of health care professionals, such as a registered nurse, administrator, and medical coordinator, even in the times that the agency is closed, such as on weekends (Barr, 2002). One of the new services provided by the agency is shopping, where the agency charges a minimal fee for assisting their clients in their dietary and shopping needs (Barr, 2002). The client may provide her dietary needs to her caretaker and the goods would be delivered to her. In relation to this, Better Home Health Care Agency, Inc. has a special in-service training, wherein caregivers and health care aids try to meet the nutritional needs of clients while at the same time pleasing their taste buds. This service consists of preparation of specific medically restricted diets, ethnic dishes, and kosher dishes, depending on the needs of the client (Barr, 2002). The changes in policy of the Agency, as manifested by the new services they provide, fall within the category of improvement of quality, which is a main concern of many health care facilities, such as hospitals (Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission, 2004). This thrust is influenced by competitive pressures, which require all participants in the health care industry to improve the quality of services, lower costs, and thereby become a better competitor in the health care industry (Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission, 2004). References Barr, N. (2002). Reforming pensions: Myths, truths, and policy choices. International   Ã‚   Social Security Review 55(2), 3-36. Better Home Health Care Agency, Inc. (2007). Innovative Programs. Retrieved November 17, 2007, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://betterhomehealthcare.com/content/innovativeprograms.html Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission. (2004). Improving Health Care:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A Dose of Competition.

Spell My Name Right

Spell My Name Right Spell My Name Right Spell My Name Right By Maeve Maddox I dont care what the newspapers say about me as long as they spell my name right. No one knows who said it first, but anyone who has ever written for a newspaper or magazine has heard some version of this quotation. It’s a thought to be taken to heart by anyone–journalist or not–who has occasion to write someone else’s name on an envelope or in a comment box. People don’t just dislike having their given names misspelled, they suffer feelings of rejection when the person who does the misspelling is a relative, friend, teacher, or business associate. Here are a few typical complaints: How many times do I have to tell them? Even when it’s there in front of them, they misspell it! Is it that hard? Even some of my own family members misspell it. My name is so common you really have to go out of your way to misspell it. Long before the modern trend of deliberately altering the conventional spelling of traditional names became popular in naming babies, careless people misspelled ordinary names like Michael and Margaret, reversing letters (Micheal) or leaving them out (Margret). Sometimes people pay so little attention to spelling that they come up with a different word altogether. For example, I sometimes receive emails addressed, â€Å"Dear Mauve.† Note: Mauve is a shade of purple; Maeve is a woman’s name. The words don’t even sound alike. Now that many new parents intentionally give difficult-to-spell names to their offspring, attention to spelling has become a social issue that affects everyone, not only professional writers. Personal feelings about unconventional spellings like Mychal for Michael, Jaxon for Jackson, or Jesaca for Jessica are irrelevant. If you know people well enough to address them by name, have the courtesy to learn how to spell their names. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Business Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Great Opening Lines to Inspire the Start of Your StoryLatin Plural EndingsStarting a Business Letter with Dear Mr.

Effects of Land Degradation in the Murray-Darling Basin Research Paper

Effects of Land Degradation in the Murray-Darling Basin - Research Paper Example The prevailing climatic conditions are also contributing to Murray-Darling basin reducing in size with each passing day. Desertification is a form of land degradation that mostly affects dry land ecosystems because of both natural and human activities (Dregne n.p). Desertification can be a cumulative effect of deforestation, poor irrigation, overgrazing, droughts, and over-cultivation that can lead to land degradation. Grasslands, savannas, and woodlands are the common indicators to the start of desertification in both arid and semi arid areas. Better-placed examples of these are Taklamakan Desert in China, the Adriatic Sea in Europe and the Sahara desert. One of the major causes of soil erosion is deforestation, as this aspect tends to weaken the soil to an extent that it cannot retain any water. Evaporation easily occurs when the soil is weak and soil erosion is usually rampant in areas near water bodies. Drought is another type of water evaporation, which is relatively a length in time when an area previously experienced rain. In areas where there are soil erosion and drought and to experience high rates of evaporation, making the areas slowly to turn into deserts. When water bodies begin to dry up, then this also becomes a sure sign that the region would eventually turn into a desert. In the end, these regions end up being unstable and can no longer sustain vegetation, human life, and wildlife hence displacing the population due to the land to become less suitable for cultivation (Dregne n.p).